With Screen gaining their independence from television, as happened thanks to video games, the computer began to be much more "personal" in the early 1980's. The arrival of an ergonomist organization relationship with the computer came mainly through the screen and mouse. The PC monitor singled exclusive relationship between machine and user, but mostly it was the mouse who made the computer a tool for individual use. The mouse allows you to navigate and to extend brain coordination, arm, virtual space that makes the experience unique and responds only to the individual user. As indicated by Steven Johnson, the desktop metaphor on the screen is by definition a monadic: it belongs to the realm of perception and individual psychology, and that is why it is so hard to think of the PC in a more communal, more social.
The first moving images projected on screens produced by mechanical means and the will to systematic symbolic were the Photo and Cinema. The Edison kinetoscope (1894) was an individual vision device with a small display on which bent the viewer to see through the images: a definitive step in new visual perception and photography stereoscopes had opened a little earlier. The stereoscope (Wheatstone, 1851), a device with two slits through which slides are different from the same object creating the feel of a single image, can be considered the first example of combining new concepts of innovation, style life and market penetration. In the first three months were sold in the United Kingdom 250,000. These two small screens, which were placed very close before the eyes, in isolation from the environment, creating a black frame around the image, which did not move when you walked, gave rise to a fabulous business and worlds stereoscopic plates available to hand. Baudelaire, no friend of naturalism in representation, see the stereoscope as a black hole that "absorbed thousands of eager eyes that were bent over their peepholes and skylights on the infinite."
A new visual culture was born. The world is in the eye within an area bounded visual and mechanical transilluminator. The screen became the main vehicle of transmission. Film and television have been the preeminent model of the relationship between perception and screen throughout the twentieth century: a stationary screen that offers content in a standardized way: a place of vision, not action. The relationship is unidirectional and is spectator remains passive. But over the years, thanks to the gradual portability of equipment, the fusion of different formats, and the progressive individual interaction offered by digital radio means, the display has changed enormously, both in size and visual considerations and productive function. The current display is an integrated broadcast and production, wherein the data query and access to services, menus and options are superimposed on the images: the touch screen makes the screen directly on the surface. Interactive television and computer have become spaces in which we work and where you're having fun or information.
The screen summarizes the new tool Digital because it happens our work and the result of our work. The fundamental laws of mass production of capitalism seem to reach a paroxysm, as if it were a implosion, revealed a complete disruption, but the plant remains the same. The difference is that workers move across machines. This is not the worker does not know the ultimate meaning of what he does, plunged into a row of nails making machines in series, but the meaning is open because access is common. And the proximity and mobility provided by the computer situational made everything a little fuzzy. In managing this new area of \u200b\u200brelationships, the ultimate meaning of your work you. And in you all the responsibility falls. Tell that to any office. They can not say the same of pallets: not as easy to "accountability" on-site staff.
The screen is about the personal computer what the numbers or hands on the clock: without them, time would still be something of experts on sand or a simple abstract entity. The small rollers inside of a clock are not there simply to tell the time, but that time is presented symbolically through the motions of rods in a sphere. Think how organizational image of the sphere with two sticks and 12 equidistant numbers is no longer "time" itself. Similarly, the screen makes visible the processes of the machine, turning them into an understandable language and dialogue which in turn began to organize new situations always growing, always opt for adhesion. The need for dialogue inherent in the search for social meaning of technology, but the systematic, standard imposes unique relationship. And so, it would not hurt to start thinking about the Collective Computer rather than on the PC.
On the screen, all of mathematics, electronic engineering, major technical difficulties disappear and reappear converted into symbols, reduced to words or icons, flashing forward to our next step. Is the window that gives access. All electronics research and mathematical calculations were unable to create their own PC. Socialize needed computing. What is the relationship expert who was not possible with a computer that is expressed through red lights, who speaks only through a printer and receiving information through stacks of punch cards? How well could become a nuisance as it meant that after the personal computer? The foundations of modern computing were established already in the 40 and 50, with contributions from people like Alan Turing and John von Neumann-always under military sponsorship, but was seeking a method of communication with the machine that precipitated, in the early 70's, the reality of a computer that said "hello." That greeting was the product of many things and many hands. Similarly, the space where the screen-expressed, and the prosthesis that represents us in the world of mouse-machine was itself a result of many others. Analyze their biographies can reveal interesting facts about the importance of the uses and needs of each moment in the way the computer has acquired "personal."
Television was the medium in which the screen has been most helpful in the twentieth century. Its ubiquity, its insertion into the everyday environment of people (in the form of furniture, as in the 50 to 60, or associated with a technophile aesthetic, as at present), and improvement from a side view and quick adaptation color (1954), made the TV the appropriate metaphor for a space in which the user places a good deal of time and trust (7 hours of "discontinuous care" front of the TV in the U.S., 5 hours Spain in 2002). Since 1974, 97% of U.S. households have television, and since 1988, more than two receivers on average in each house. Major European countries reached the figure of 92% of domestic television penetration in 1986.
With radar (Radio Detecting and Ranging) was developed during World War II, the position of an object is determined by an electronic signal on a monitor round, which visual space is governed by spatial coordinates, all arranged around a central point is the position of the radio antenna. The perception produced an image on the screen, a bright and emerged a strategy, simulations and calculations. The information becomes a visible actor on the screen. Our actions on the object are also levied on it. The possibility of interaction offered whisk radar engineers to work on joysticks, light pens, and finally to the mouse. But at the same time, the association between the display and monitoring of distance, both reminiscent of the early ideas of Galileo in front of the star prosecution reduced to symbols in a crystal, will be further accentuated by the use of observation and monitoring screens, especially thanks to radar. Hence we call monitor to our computer screens.
worth remembering back to Douglas Engelbart. While waiting for demobilization as a naval radar technician in 1945, shortly after the war ended, he read a magazine article Vanevar Bush, "As We May Think." Back home, he continued his experience with the radar as an electrical engineer. Years later, all those hours trying to discern the real threats posed by virtual beeping radar screens were transfigured into new modes of information and communication: "I realized that if the computers you can display information on printed paper, so they could do in screens . When I saw the connection between a screen-and tele-information processor and a means to represent symbols a person, everything was removed. I went home and drew a system in which computers would draw symbols on the screen where I could browse through different information spaces with knobs and buttons and watch words, data and graphics in different ways. "
In the era of the first large computers such as ENIAC (1944), EDVAC (1945), UNIVAC (1947), and IBM's series of the 50 and 60, how to enter commands and extract results was through punched cards and tapes. Green or red buttons populate a flickering boards were aware of the activity of the machine. With the advent of radar and its application in electrical activity signals, relays and valves, computers, information is displayed: The machine language provides some visual relationship with the user through a new alphabet, which end up forming an interface.
In the 60's, engineers such as John Licklider attempt to "marry the human and electronic elements." In 1963, Ivan Sutherland made Sketchpad, a computer with pen on the table fixed to move in a direction actions triggered by connected to a computer monitor, and using a first set symbolic interface with direct manipulation of graphic symbols. An operator could create graphics on the screen when touched with a pencil of light. When you change something on the screen, also changed in the computer's memory. The display real-time interactive doing: "We live in a physical world whose properties we are familiar with time and we can predict and observe. But we lack the same familiarity with concepts not perceptible in the physical world. It is in the electronic window in which to see the wonderful world of mathematics. "
Although in 1965 developed the first trackball, also for air traffic control will be in 1967 when Doug Engelbart invented the mouse. " Engelbart recalls which was inspired by a device called a "planimeter", which an engineer slipped on a chart to calculate the area under a curve. Among many engineers this compact device was as common as a measurement rule. The mouse provided a practical and superior to interact with a computer that does not deform symbolic reasoning capabilities of the user. The most obvious model was the car, whose driver system presents a clear and direct steering and change direction, stepping on the gas pedal and accelerate, brake pedal and slow down. Cars-and mouse-using hand-eye coordination, in which humans are very adept at reading information. Engelbart (or Kay, who developed the idea of \u200b\u200bdesktop) then argued that "by using a computer and a video terminal to compose documents, it would be possible to widen the entire writing process." Alan Kay, meanwhile, started work as a desktop screen and every project as a paper on the desk.
Once integrated hardware keyboard, monitor, and mouse, all expressible be done visually. The search for a graphical language that is able to organize information that depends on another, with the volume that implies, will be next step in creating an interface that "justifies" socially and commercially the idea of \u200b\u200bthe computer.
Parc Xerox engineers began to develop computers to early 1970 with the intention of certain fears ahead of a company's copiers meet the growing interconnection of two different media: computers drew their information through printers. Assign the number of copies to be printed in the program was a possibility that should stun company executives photocopies. Xerox adopted a new strategy that led in 1973 to the Xerox Alto, a desktop computer with keyboard and screen. The monitor was vertical to match the actual format of a page: the idea of \u200b\u200bvirtual space had not curdled. XEROX was based on investigations of Licklider and Engelbart. In addition to using a mouse and windows, the Xerox Alto also provided a screen bit-mapped ", where each display element could be manipulated. This allowed the user to climb charts and mixing text and graphics on the screen.
In 1979, Apple began working on a computer called Macintosh. Draft Jef Raskin, the computer suggested a unifying text and graphics in the same way that had already been investigated at Xerox Parc Apple had introduced the Apple Lisa, who already had drop-down menus and menu bars. It was expensive (10,000 dollars) and sales were not spectacular. The next move was to hire some engineers from Xerox Parc, which carried the invention of the mouse. In 1984, Apple introduced the Macintosh in a TV ad during the football grand final, in which a blonde throws a hammer to cut a big screen Orwellian, and in which an immense masses indoctrinated face smashed in clear reference to IBM. The computer was sold for 2,500 euros. It consisted of high-resolution screen in black and white, keyboard, mouse and 128K of memory. The elegance of the Mac operating system was a great success. Its combination of simplicity, integration and engineering practice was extremely rare at that time. When a file is opened or closed, its symbol is contracted or espandÃa, which proved to be very friendly to users. Microsoft quickly saw the potential of an interface as well. A year later, Apple had a rudimentary networking system, called AppleTalk, inspired by radio transmission systems (via ether) between the Hawaiian Islands.
Meanwhile, the miniaturization of portable devices and subsequent investigations led them new vision technologies applied to the screens of multiple devices: computers, automobile dashboards, electronic equipment and sound film, watches, calculators, video games, elevators, etc. ..
In 1961, the market for the first time an LED (Light Emitting Diode) that combines three primary elements: gallium, arsenic and phosphorus. Calculators and timers will be the first machines to receive those little screens on which appear a few small filaments, as indicating a selective lighting. The LED will be revolutionary to the extent that will allow the development of mass marketing gimmicks, easy to understand and display to the user.
In 1970, Sharp incorporates an LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) on one of their calculators, and Optel Corp in an electronic watch in 1971. The process towards the LCD part of the investigations conducted by the Austrian F. Reinitzer in 1888 that led him to discover liquid crystals. The applications of glass screens in the technology industry have been enormous and enormously influential in the marketing of video games, laptops and all kinds of displays on the screen. The LCD displays use much less power than LEDs or fluorescent models allow pocket calculators to work for months (and not for hours, as the LED) without recharging or replacing batteries. In 1983, Toshiba introduced the first laptop with LCD screen. And thanks to the LCD is that Nintendo has the Game Boy in 1989. The LCD, however, is difficult to see from a side angle. That
start partially corrected in 1961 when the American P. Weimer invents the TFT (Thin Film Transistor), which besides offering better image quality, had a higher refresh rate, which is especially important for multimedia applications that use animated video sequences and mobile telecommunication devices. The TFT is the current standard of flat screens on most playback devices and interaction.
Although studies on the possibility of acting directly on the screen and were targeted to the development of radar and optical pencils, will be in the 70's when the touch screen technology will start being realistic. In 1971, Sam Hurst, founder of Elographics, creates a first sensor touch screen. In 1974, some marketing starts and finally patented in 1977 as we know it: first, at the ATM.
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